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<title>Nominalized adjective</title>

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<p>A <b>nominalized adjective</b> is an <a href="Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> that has undergone <a href="Nominalization" title="Nominalization">nominalization</a>, and is thus used as a <a href="Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>. In <i>the rich and the poor</i>, the adjectives <i>rich</i> and <i>poor</i> function as nouns denoting people who are rich and poor respectively.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_English">In English</h2></div>

<p>The most common appearance of the nominalized adjective in English is when an adjective is used to indicate a collective group. This happens in the case where a phrase such as <i>the poor people</i> becomes <i>the poor</i>. The adjective <i>poor</i> is nominalized, and the noun <i>people</i> disappears. Other adjectives commonly used in this way include <i>rich</i>, <i>wealthy</i>, <i>homeless</i>, <i><a href="Disability" title="Disability">disabled</a></i>, <i>blind</i>, <i>deaf</i>, etc., as well as certain <a href="Demonym" title="Demonym">demonyms</a> such as <i>English</i>, <i>Welsh</i>, <i>Irish</i>, <i>French</i>, <i>Dutch</i>.

</p><p>Another case is when an adjective is used to denote a single object with the property, as in "you take the long route, and I'll take the <i>short</i>". Here <i>the short</i> stands for "the short route". A much more common alternative in the modern language is the structure using the <a href="Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">prop-word</a> <i>one</i>: "the short one". However, the use of the adjective alone is fairly common in the case of <a href="Superlative" class="mw-redirect" title="Superlative">superlatives</a> such as <i>biggest</i>, <a href="Ordinal_number" title="Ordinal number">ordinal numbers</a> such as <i>first</i>, <i>second</i>, etc., and other related words such as <i>next</i> and <i>last</i>.

</p><p>Many adjectives, though, have undergone <a href="Conversion_(word_formation)" title="Conversion (word formation)">conversion</a> so that they can be used regularly as <a href="Countable_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Countable noun">countable nouns</a>; examples include <i>Catholic</i>, <i>Protestant</i>, <i>red</i> (with various meanings), <i>green</i>, etc.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h3></div>

<p>Nominal uses of adjectives have been found to have become less common as the language developed from <a href="Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> to <a href="Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> and then <a href="Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a>. The following table shows the frequency of such uses in different stages of the language:<sup id="cite_ref-Yamamura2010_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamamura2010-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<td><b>Period</b></td>

<td>Early OE<br>(to 950)</td>

<td>Early ME<br>(1150–1350)</td>

<td>1640–1710

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><b>Frequency of adjectives<br>used as nouns<br>(per 100,000 words)</b></td>

<td>91.1

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The decline in the use of adjectives as nouns may be attributed to the loss of adjectival <a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a> throughout Middle English. In line with the <a href="Minimalist_program" title="Minimalist program">Minimalist Framework</a> elaborated by <a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Noam_Chomsky_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noam_Chomsky-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is suggested that inflected adjectives are more likely to be nominalized because they have overtly-marked <a href="Phi_features" title="Phi features">φ-features</a> (such as <a href="Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical number</a> and <a href="Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>), which makes them suitable for use as the <a href="Complement_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement (grammar)">complement</a> of a <a href="Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a>.

</p><p>Determiners with unvalued φ-features must find a complement with a valued φ-feature to meet semantic comprehension.<sup id="cite_ref-Yamamura2010_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamamura2010-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the diagrams below, the determiner is <i>the</i>, and its complement is either the <a href="Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> <i>poor people</i> or the nominalized adjective <i>poor</i>.

</p>

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</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default"><div class="title"><div>Transformation of adjective to adjectival noun</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="nochecker bordered-images whitebg gallery mw-gallery-traditional">

<div class="gallerytext">Tree diagram of <a href="Determiner_phrase" title="Determiner phrase">determiner phrase</a> with <i>poor</i> as an attributive adjective</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Transformed determiner phrase with <i>poor</i> as nominalized adjective</div>

</li>

</ul></div></div></div>

<p>The capacity of adjectives to be used as nouns is sometimes exploited in puns like <a href="The_Poor_Rich" title="The Poor Rich">The poor rich</a>.

</p><p>As the frequency of nominalized adjective use decreased, the frequency of structures using the <a href="Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">prop-word</a> <i>one</i> increased (phrases such as "the large" were replaced by those of the type "the large one"). In most other languages, there is no comparable prop-word, and nominalized adjectives, which in many cases retain inflectional endings, have remained more common.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_other_languages">In other languages</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German">German</h3></div>

<p>Adjectives in <a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a> change their form for various features, such as case and gender, and so agree with the noun that they modify. The adjective <i>alt</i> (old), for example, develops a separate <a href="Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical entry</a> that carries the morphological and syntactic requirements of the head noun that has been removed:<sup id="cite_ref-Sadock1991_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadock1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the requirements are the <a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> endings of the language.

</p>

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</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">der</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Alt-e</p><p style="margin: 0px;">old-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">der Alt-e</p><p style="display: none;">the.NOM.SG.MASC old-NOM.SG.MASC</p><p style="clear: left;">'the old man' (Sadock 1991)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">den</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Alt-en</p><p style="margin: 0px;">old-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">den Alt-en</p><p style="display: none;">the.ACC.SG.MASC old-ACC.SG.MASC</p><p style="clear: left;">'the old man' (Sadock 1991)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>Here, <i>der Alte</i> is inflected for masculine gender, singular number and nominative case.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Den Alten</i> is a similar inflection but in the accusative case. The nominalized adjective is derived from the adjective <i>alt</i> and surfaces as it does by taking the appropriate inflection.<sup id="cite_ref-Sadock1991_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadock1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swedish">Swedish</h3></div>

<p>Like in English, adjectival nouns are used as a plural <a href="Definite" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite">definite</a> ("the unemployed") and with nationality words ("the Swedish"). However, Swedish does not require "one or ones" with <a href="Count_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Count nouns">count nouns</a> ("The old cat is slower than the new (one)"). The use of <a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, which incorporates the number and the gender of the noun, allows Swedish to avoid the need for a visible noun to describe a noun. That is also true in inflecting adjectival nouns.<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes94_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes94-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Standard_use_of_an_adjectival_noun">Standard use of an adjectival noun</h4></div>

<p>A noun phrase with both the noun and the adjective.

</p>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">en</p><p style="margin: 0px;">a.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">blind</p><p style="margin: 0px;">blind</p></div><p style="display: none;">en blind</p><p style="display: none;">a.SG.NOM blind</p><p style="clear: left;">a blind person<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes94_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes94-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>A noun phrase with only the adjectival noun.

</p>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">de</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">blind-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">blind-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">de blind-a</p><p style="display: none;">the.PL.NOM blind-PL</p><p style="clear: left;">the blind<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes94_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes94-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example_of_indefinite_use[dubious_–_discuss]">Example of indefinite use</h4></div>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Use_of_number_and_gender_inflection">Use of number and gender inflection</h4></div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div><b>Neuter singular</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">det</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="neuter gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nya</p><p style="margin: 0px;">new<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div><p style="display: none;">det nya</p><p style="display: none;">the.N.SG new<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><p style="clear: left;">the new (thing)<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes94_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes94-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swedish adjectives in definite form do not inflect for gender and number.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div><b>Feminine singular</b></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">den</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">F</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gamla</p><p style="margin: 0px;">woman</p></div><p style="display: none;">den gamla</p><p style="display: none;">the.F.SG woman</p><p style="clear: left;">the old woman<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes94_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes94-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greek">Ancient Greek</h3></div>

<p>Ancient Greek uses nominalized adjectives without a "dummy" or generic noun like English "one(s)" or "thing(s)".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjective that modifies the noun carries information about gender, number and case and so can entirely replace the noun.

</p>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">πολλαί</p><p style="margin: 0px;">many.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">πολλαί</p><p style="display: none;">many.FEM.NOM.PL</p><p style="clear: left;">"many women" (Balme & Lawall 2003) or "many things (of feminine gender)"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">καλόν</p><p style="margin: 0px;">beautiful.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="neuter gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEUT</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">καλόν</p><p style="display: none;">beautiful.NEUT.NOM.SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"a beautiful thing" or "a beautiful one"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">τὸ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="neuter gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEUT</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">καλόν</p><p style="margin: 0px;">beautiful.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="neuter gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEUT</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">τὸ καλόν</p><p style="display: none;">the.NEUT.NOM.SG beautiful.NEUT.NOM.SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"the beautiful thing" or "the beautiful one"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian">Russian</h3></div>

<p>In Russian, the <a href="Conversion_(word_formation)" title="Conversion (word formation)">conversion</a> (or zero derivation) process of an adjective becoming a noun is the only type of conversion that is allowed. The process functions as a critical means of addition to the <a href="Open_class_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open class (linguistics)">open class</a> category of nouns.

</p><p>Of all Slavic languages, Russian is the one that uses the attributive nouns the most. When the adjective is nominalized, the adjectival inflection alone expresses case, number and gender, and the noun is omitted.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the Russian phrase «приёмная комната» (<i>priyomnaya komnata</i>, "receiving room") becomes «приёмная» (<i>priyomnaya</i>, "reception room"). The adjective "receiving" takes the nominal from "reception" and replaces the noun "room".

</p><p>Many adjectival nouns in Russian serve to create nouns. Those common forms of nouns are known as "deleted nouns"; and there are three types:

</p><p>The first type occurs in the specific context within a sentence or phrase and refers to the original noun that it describes. For example, in the sentence "Tall trees are older than short" the adjective "short" has become a noun and is assumed to mean "the short ones". Such a derivation is contextually sensitive to the lexical meaning of the phrase of which it is part.

</p><p>The content-specific use of adjectival nouns also occurs in the second type in which nouns can be deleted, or assumed, in colloquial expressions. For example, in Russian, one might say «встречный» "oncoming" to refer to: 1) «встречный ветер» — headwind; 2) «встречный поезд» — train coming from the opposite direction; 3) «встречный план» — counter-plan; 4) «встречный иск» — counter-claim.

</p><p>The third type is known as the "permanent" adjectival noun and has an adjective that stands alone as a noun. Such adjectives have become nouns over time, and most speakers are aware of their implicit adjectival meaning. For example, «прилагательное» (lit. "something, that apply something else") — the adjective.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabic">Arabic</h3></div>

<p>Nominalized adjectives occur frequently in both <a href="Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> and <a href="Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>. An example would be <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الإسلامية</span></span> <span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ʾislāmiyyah</i></span> "things (that are) Islamic", which is derived from the adjective <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">إسلامي</span></span> <span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾislāmī</i></span> "Islamic" in the inanimate plural inflection.

</p><p>Another example would be <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الكبير</span></span> <span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-kabīr</i></span> "the big one" (said of a person or thing of masculine gender), from <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">كبير</span></span> <span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">kabīr</i></span> "big" inflected in the masculine singular.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral adjective</a></li>

<li><a href="Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a>, a noun used as an adjective</li>

<li><a href="Adnoun" title="Adnoun">Adnoun</a>, alternative term for <i>nominalised adjective</i>, alternative historical term for <i>adjective</i></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFYamamura2010" class="citation journal cs1">Yamamura, Shuto (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9793%2Felsj.27.2_344">"The Development of Adjectives used as Nouns in the History of English"</a>. <i>English Linguistics</i>. <b>27</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">344–</span>363. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9793%2Felsj.27.2_344">10.9793/elsj.27.2_344</a></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Noam_Chomsky-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Noam_Chomsky_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRogerMichaelJuan2000" class="citation book cs1">Roger, Martin; Michael, David; Juan, Uriageraka (2000). <i>"Minimalist Inquiries: The Framework," Step by Step: Essays on Minimalist Syntax in Honour of Howard Lasnik</i>. Cambridge: MIT Press.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sadock1991-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sadock1991_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadock1991_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSadock1991" class="citation book cs1">Sadock, Jerrold M. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/autolexicalsynta0000sado"><i>Autolexical syntax: A Theory of Parallel Grammatical Representations</i></a></span>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/autolexicalsynta0000sado/page/41">41</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~german/Grammatik/AdjectivalNouns/AdjectivalNouns.html">"Adjectival Nouns"</a>. <i>Dartmouth.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-06-19</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Holmes94-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes94_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes94_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes94_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes94_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes94_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes94_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHolmesHinchliffe1994" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian (1994). <i>Swedish: A compressive grammar</i> (Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">96–</span>102.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBalmeLawall2003" class="citation book cs1">Balme, Maurice; Lawall, Gilbert (2003). <i>Athenaze</i> (second ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 96.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSwan1980" class="citation journal cs1">Swan, Oscar (April 1980). "The Derivation of the Russian Adjectival Noun". <i>Russian Linguistics</i>. <b>4</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">397–</span>404.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lexical_categories_and_their_features201" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lexical_categories_and_their_features201" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Lexical categories</a> and their features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li>

<li><a href="Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li>

<li><a href="Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li>

<li><a href="Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li>

<li><a href="Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li>

<li><a href="Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li>

<li><a href="Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li>

<li><a href="Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li>

<li><a href="Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li>

<li><a href="Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li>

<li><a href="Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerund</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li>

<li><a href="Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li>

<li><a href="Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li>

<li><a href="Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li>

<li><a href="Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li>

<li><a href="Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li>

<li><a href="Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li>

<li><a href="Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li>

<li><a href="Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li>

<li><a href="Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copular</a></li>

<li><a href="Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li>

<li><a href="Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li>

<li><a href="Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li>

<li><a href="Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li>

<li><a href="Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li>

<li><a href="Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li>

<li><a href="Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li>

<li><a href="Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">Impersonal</a></li>

<li><a href="Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li>

<li><a href="Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li>

<li><a href="Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li>

<li><a href="Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li>

<li><a href="Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li>

<li><a href="Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li>

<li><a href="Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li>

<li><a href="Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li>

<li><a href="Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li>

<li><a href="Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li>

<li><a href="Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li>

<li><a href="Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li>

<li><a href="Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li>

<li><a href="Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li>

<li><a href="Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li>

<li><a href="Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li>

<li><a href="Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li>

<li><a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li>

<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li>

<li><a href="Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li>

<li><a href="Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li>

<li><a href="Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>

<li><a href="Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li>

<li><a href="Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li>

<li><a href="Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li>

<li><a href="Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li>

<li><a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li>

<li><a href="Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li>

<li><a href="Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li>

<li><a href="T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="Preferred_gender_pronoun" title="Preferred gender pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li>

<li><a href="Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li>

<li><a href="Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li>

<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li>

<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li>

<li><a href="Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li>

<li><a href="Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li>

<li><a href="Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li>

<li><a href="Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li>

<li><a href="Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li>

<li><a href="Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li>

<li><a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li>

<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>

<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li>

<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li>

<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a>

<ul><li><a href="Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li>

<li><a href="Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li>

<li><a href="Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li>

<li><a href="Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Pro-verb" title="Pro-verb">Pro-verb</a> / <a href="Pro-sentence" title="Pro-sentence">Pro-sentence</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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